MSM continue to make up a large percentage of those infected, with male same-sex sexual contact as the putative means of infection in 43% of AIDS cases among Latinos in the U.S. ( Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004). Latina women also constitute a high risk group, with HIV rates five times those of White non-Hispanic women ( CDC, 2004). Sexual contact with a male partner is the most common means of infection for Latinas ( CDC, 2004), and in many cases women are unaware of their partners’ risk behaviors (e.g., injection drug use, multiple partners, sex with men) and HIV status ( Hader, Smith, Moore, & Holmberg, 2001). Research has suggested that male bisexual behavior is more prevalent among ethnic minorities than Whites ( Chu, Peterman, Doll, Buehler, & Curran, 1992). Prevalence data from two national probability samples indicated that one third of Latino MSM reported sex with both men and women in the last five years ( Binson et al., 1995). In addition, condom use was found to be less likely to occur with female partners than with male partners for both gay and bisexually identified African American and White men ( Stokes, Vanable, & McKirnan, 1996).įurthermore, studies have shown low rates of disclosure to female partners concerning sexual activity with other men ( CDC, 2003 Kalichman, Roffman, Picciano, & Bolan, 1998 Stokes, McKirnan, Doll, & Burzette, 1996). It is possible that a similar pattern of behavior occurs among Latinos. Research has also indicated that MSM who do not identify as gay pose a potential risk to their male partners. In their survey of men in New York City, Pathela et al. (2006) found that heterosexually identified MSM were approximately 40% less likely to have been tested for HIV than gay-identified MSM. Moreover, although gay men were more likely to have engaged in high risk behaviors (e.g., having multiple partners), they were more than twice as likely to have used a condom in the most recent sexual encounter as straight-identified MSM.Ĭultural factors shape attitudes about sexuality and identity in ways that have implications for HIV risk. Although there are multiple expressions of masculinity in Latino culture ( Gutmann, 1996, 2003 Mirandé, 1997), certain characteristics are frequently seen as male (e.g., activity, strength, dominance), whereas others are seen as female (passivity, weakness, submission) ( Chant & Craske, 2003, De la Cancela, 1985 Mirandé, 1997). Latino men have been portrayed as needing to penetrate during sex, to ejaculate once they are aroused, and to demonstrate virility with female sex partners ( Gupta, 2002 Marín, et al., 1997 Wood & Price, 1997).
The emphasis on penetration as active and manly has led to a belief by some Latinos that “homosexuals” are those men who take a receptive role in anal intercourse, whereas “men” (i.e., heterosexuals) are those who take an insertive role, regardless of the gender of the partner ( Carballo-Diéguez et al., 2004 Carrier, 1992 Carrillo, 2002 Díaz, 1998 Finlinson, Colón, Robles, & Soto, 2006).